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राष्ट्र पिता : महात्मा गाँधी  को समर्पित

LIFE & WORKS






Mahatma was born as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on October 2, 1869, at Porbandar. Mohandas or Mohan was youngest of the three sons of Putlibai and Karamchand Gandhi. His father had been Prime Minister successively in three Kathiawar States. He was straight and true as steel, known for his steadfastness and loyalty. The little house were Gandhi was born is today known as the "Kirti Mandir".



Even as a child Gandhi was deeply influenced by his mother Putlibai’s deeply religious and austere beliefs. He did his primary schooling at Porbandar, and his high school at Albert High School, Rajkot. Gandhi showed no particular brilliance, played no games, and was quite an introvert. He read little beyond text books, but respected his teacher, and was determined not to copy from his neighbour’s answer sheets.



Marriage with Kasturba, at the age of thirteen, was almost play. But Gandhi began as a jealous and possessive husband; he wanted to make his illiterate wife an ideal one. The other person he was much attached to was his eldest brother Laxmidas. When their father was no more, it was Laxmidas who helped to educate him and send him to England for legal studies.



Putlibai let Gandhi go abroad only after he vowed to lead a simple & religious life. For a while Gandhi was tempted to follow westerners. But soon he returned to simplicity. A vegetarian by tradition he soon became one by conviction, joining and working actively for the London Vegetarian Society. He was called to the Bar in June 1891.



The Crossroads

In 1893, Gandhi went to South Africa to handle a case. But though his legal work was soon over, he stayed on for 21 years, fighting against racial discrimination and for the rights of the Indian Community. South Africa was the turning point of his life, where his perfectly normal life ceased to exist and he became a human rights activist, ever so staunch in his belief of achieving independence through ahimsa (non-violence).



Ashram Settlement

In founding and running his Ashram settlement at Phoenix and Tolstoy farm, Gandhi was much influenced by Tolstoy and Ruskin towards leading a simple community life. The third of "the moderns" who impressed Gandhi was Raj Chandra, the Jain philosopher and intellectual.



Service in hour of need

During the Boer war and the Zulu rebellion he helped the British Raj at the hour of its need, by raising Indian Ambulance and Stretcher-barer Corps which served close to the line of fire. Gandhi was awarded medals for this service.



The India Struggle

The Natal India Congress founded by Gandhi in 1894, on lines similar to the Indian National Congress, and later the British Indian Committee in the Transvaal fought against restrictions on Indian trade, movement and residence. During the campaign against the ‘Black’ Registration Act, Gandhi lit a grand bonfire of thousands of the registration certificates.

The Homecoming

The Passive Resistance Struggle was to be long-drawn-out. Thousands of satyagrahis suffered imprisonment, loss of property, trade. Tolstoy farm was built by Gandhi on land donated by Kallenbach, as a colony for housing satyagrahis families. They did farming, grew fruit, followed simple crafts and conducted school — all noble experiment in community living.

After Gandhi, Polka and Kallenbach were arrested and jailed. Woman too courted imprisonment. Later the government released them and set up the Solomon commission of inquiry C. F. Andrews and Person visited South Africa and interceded with the Government.




Gandhiji left South Africa in July 1914. In England, enroute to India, a great war broke out, during which time Gandhiji helped raise an Indian Volunteer Corps. In December, Gandhiji and Kasturba sailed for India



In India with Kasturba, clad in simple Kathiawadi clothes, Gandhi turned to Gokhale, his "Political Guru", for guidance. He was advised to closely study the political scenario in India, while refraining for making political speeches.



Hero’s welcome

The man in South Africa, had striven valiantly, through satyagraha, for his peoples' honour and human dignity, received Hero’s welcome anywhere. He traveled widely north and south, mostly by third class of the railways. Visiting Shantiniketan to meet Gurudev—Rabindranath – Tagore – was like going on a pilgrimage.



Honoured by all

In Madras Natesan described Gandhi as the embodiment of godliness and the wisdom of the saint Kasturba as the incarnation of wifely virtue. In may 1915, Gandhi settled down at Kochrab, near Ahmedabad, where he founded the Satyagraha ashram. Honours came to him-the Kaiser-I-Hind and other medals for his ambulance services in war.



Champaran Satyagraha

Outwards trappings meant little to Gandhi. At Banaras he blamed the Princes for their love of finery. At Allahabad he declared material progress of little worth without morality. Gandhi's first satyagraha test in India came in Champaran, Bihar in 1917 and it led to inquiry into the evil Indigo system and help to end it.



Sabarmati Ashram

When in 1917 plague broke out at Kochrab, Gandhi move his Ashram to Sabarmati Hriday Kunj became his abode ; Kasturba lived in separate Kuti, bound by her husband’s vow of brahmacharya, close at hand were the grounds where Gandhi gathered Ashram inmates, morning and evening, prayer.



Satyagraha again

Lokmanya Tilak dominated Indian politics at this time. But, in 1918, Gandhi emerged into National Leadership through satyagraha – for remission of land revenue in famine-stricken Kheda district; also the Ahmedabad Mills-hands’ strike, during which he fasted lest strikers weaken. At prayer meetings



Bitter Fruit

The end of the great war brought India no freedom, only more repression. Gandhi called for country-wide hartal to protest against the Rowlatt Act. Of 1919. in mosques and on beaches he preached Satyagraha; pacified rioters at Bombay and Ahmedabad; but Jallianwala in Punjab was to witness an unprecedented and cold blooded massacre.



Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

People massed in thousands, to protest against Govt. repressive policy, at Jallianwala Bagh. Determine to "Make an example of them", the Government ordered troops to fired on the unarmed crowd. Hundreds died. Martial low and a reign of terror followed. Deeply shocked Gandhi returned his war decorations, decided to non-cooperate with a government that was evil.

Non-cooperation is Born


The Indian National Congress at Calcutta approved of non-cooperation: boycott of law-courts, government educational institutions and foreign goods. Gandhi saw it as the only alternative to violence for redress of the Khilafats and the Punjab wrongs. The founding of Gujarat Vidyapith in November 1920 was a symbol of the national re-awakening.



Swaraj fund-Swadeshi

"Swaraj in one year" was Gandhi’s slogan. Leaders of many shades came together, as at Madras, but few trusted Swaraj could came so quickly. The people rising to Gandhi’s call, raise a 10 million rupee memorial fund for Tilak who died on August1, 1920. a year, later a spectacular bonfire of foreign cloth ushered in the era of Swadeshi.



From Yerawada to Belgaum

1922 saw an eclipse: following violence at Chauri Chaura, Gandhi suspended non-cooperation. Arrested for seditious writings for Young India and tried, March 18, he was sentenced to six years, but an operation of appendicitis brought early release from Yerawada Prison. 1924 was to see him once again at helm at a Belgaum congress.



‘Unity’ Fast



In September 1924, Gandhi imposed on himself at 21 days fast to end Hindu-Muslim tension, an act of religion which taught him to love all equally. It restored peace in the riot-ridden country, brought all leaders together, let to sum cleansing of hearts. It resulted in a communal truce.

Deshbandhu’s Death



1925 was a year of calamity: Deshbandhu C. R. Das, Swarajist leader, died in June at Darjeeling where Gandhi had just spent some days with him. It had brought nearer, the Mahatma who preached non-cooperation, and Deshbandhu who gave fight to the Government to the councils. Disconsolate at his death, Gandhi wrote a touching obituary in the glow of the funeral pyre. under a tree, he called for discipline and concern for duties, not merely rights.



On many fronts



1925-28 provided two landmarks of Gandhi’s leadership; Vaikom Satyagraha for giving untouchables use of temple roads, and the founding of All-India Spinner’s Association. For the rest the stage was occupied by Lajpat Ray, martyred during the Simon Commission boycott, hero of the Bardoli Satyagraha, Motilal Nehru, author of the Constitution Report, and Jawaharlal, champion of the "Complete Independence" resolution at the Calcutta congress.



Wheel of Time



And so the Wheel of time turned on. Gandhi’s use of the bicycle- a rare performance in order to punctual at meeting – indicated the lengths he was ready to go. And his constant companion, the spinning wheel, remained with him wherever he went, an instrument which spun the destiny of the country and symbolised his identification with the poor.

Salt Satyagraha



1929-30: "The Year of Grace". Gandhi was gathering his forces for onslaught on the citadel of authority. The "salt Satyagraha" was not merely a protest against taxing the poor man’s diet, or a disobedience of the salt lows. In Gandhi’s eyes it was a "battle or rights against might". While the world wondered, the "Dandi March" became the "First shot" in this unique fight.

Dandi March



Small through the chosen band, its 200 mile march to the sea recalled the other "Great March" of 1913 Gandhi had led in South Africa. He had sent viceroy Irwin an "Ultimatum" before embarking on civil disobedience. On "bended knees" he had asked "for bread and received a stone instead". On the knight of may 5, 1930, they stole of him like thieves in the night and arrested him.



Truce and Release



India was a fire. Satyagraha, strikes, picketing, boycott of foreign goods and no-tax campaigns were the other of the day. Lakhs were jailed. Thousands suffered loss of limb, hundreds died on lathi charges, firing. Sapru, Jaykar helped to bring about a truce. Gandhi was released on June 25, 1931. while resting in Bombay, he took counsels with his associates, he wanted peace but with honour.





The Nehrus



Drawn into the political struggle, largely under Gandhi influence, Motilal and Jawaharlal occupied the centre of the stage. At Allahabad they had presided over, addressed meeting attended by leaders like Kripalani, Tandon, Malavia. When in February 1931, Motilal died, Gandhi felt more than "Windowed", said, "What I have lost is loss for ever". Jawaharlal was a rich legacy.



Karachi Mandate



The congress met at Karachi in March, adopted a resolution moved by Jawaharlal and secondary by Badshan Khan endorsing the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. It reaffirmed the goal of "Poorna Swaraj", authorised Gandhi to represent it at the Second Round Table Conference in London. Congress also extolled the bravery of Bhagat Singh and his associates who were martyrs in the country’s cost.





Way Clear for R. T. C.



Official implementation of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was partial, trady. There was repression in the frontier province, tension in U. P. Gandhi stood by the pledge to honour the truce acquainted Viceroy Willingdon at Simla with official branches. After a second settlement, in August, Gandhi saw the way clear for the R. T. C. ; at Bombay the nation bade him speed on August 29.



In Quest of Freedom



Malaviya, Sarojini Naidu, Madhav and Pyarelal- his secretary Miraben, and son Devdas accompanied Gandhi. On board S. S. Rajputana he was in high spirits, chatted with other passengers, made friends and play with children, held prayer meetings, spoke, examined the ship’s instruments, dozed on the sunlit deck, and most of the time plied the spinning wheel.





Friends Every Where



At Suez and port side, Gandhi received Egypt’s greetings, met Indian deputations, talk to journalist, at Marseilles, European friends, like Deenbandhu C. F. Andrews. Arriving in London on September 12, Gandhi and party proceeded to the East End, the quarter of the poor coal miners and factory hands, live in their midst of Kingsley Hall, managed by Muriel Lester, his English hostess.

Non-cooperation is Born


The Indian National Congress at Calcutta approved of non-cooperation: boycott of law-courts, government educational institutions and foreign goods. Gandhi saw it as the only alternative to violence for redress of the Khilafats and the Punjab wrongs. The founding of Gujarat Vidyapith in November 1920 was a symbol of the national re-awakening.



Swaraj fund-Swadeshi

"Swaraj in one year" was Gandhi’s slogan. Leaders of many shades came together, as at Madras, but few trusted Swaraj could came so quickly. The people rising to Gandhi’s call, raise a 10 million rupee memorial fund for Tilak who died on August1, 1920. a year, later a spectacular bonfire of foreign cloth ushered in the era of Swadeshi.



From Yerawada to Belgaum

1922 saw an eclipse: following violence at Chauri Chaura, Gandhi suspended non-cooperation. Arrested for seditious writings for Young India and tried, March 18, he was sentenced to six years, but an operation of appendicitis brought early release from Yerawada Prison. 1924 was to see him once again at helm at a Belgaum congress.



‘Unity’ Fast



In September 1924, Gandhi imposed on himself at 21 days fast to end Hindu-Muslim tension, an act of religion which taught him to love all equally. It restored peace in the riot-ridden country, brought all leaders together, let to sum cleansing of hearts. It resulted in a communal truce.

Deshbandhu’s Death



1925 was a year of calamity: Deshbandhu C. R. Das, Swarajist leader, died in June at Darjeeling where Gandhi had just spent some days with him. It had brought nearer, the Mahatma who preached non-cooperation, and Deshbandhu who gave fight to the Government to the councils. Disconsolate at his death, Gandhi wrote a touching obituary in the glow of the funeral pyre. under a tree, he called for discipline and concern for duties, not merely rights.



On many fronts



1925-28 provided two landmarks of Gandhi’s leadership; Vaikom Satyagraha for giving untouchables use of temple roads, and the founding of All-India Spinner’s Association. For the rest the stage was occupied by Lajpat Ray, martyred during the Simon Commission boycott, hero of the Bardoli Satyagraha, Motilal Nehru, author of the Constitution Report, and Jawaharlal, champion of the "Complete Independence" resolution at the Calcutta congress.



Wheel of Time



And so the Wheel of time turned on. Gandhi’s use of the bicycle- a rare performance in order to punctual at meeting – indicated the lengths he was ready to go. And his constant companion, the spinning wheel, remained with him wherever he went, an instrument which spun the destiny of the country and symbolised his identification with the poor.

Salt Satyagraha



1929-30: "The Year of Grace". Gandhi was gathering his forces for onslaught on the citadel of authority. The "salt Satyagraha" was not merely a protest against taxing the poor man’s diet, or a disobedience of the salt lows. In Gandhi’s eyes it was a "battle or rights against might". While the world wondered, the "Dandi March" became the "First shot" in this unique fight.

Dandi March



Small through the chosen band, its 200 mile march to the sea recalled the other "Great March" of 1913 Gandhi had led in South Africa. He had sent viceroy Irwin an "Ultimatum" before embarking on civil disobedience. On "bended knees" he had asked "for bread and received a stone instead". On the knight of may 5, 1930, they stole of him like thieves in the night and arrested him.



Truce and Release



India was a fire. Satyagraha, strikes, picketing, boycott of foreign goods and no-tax campaigns were the other of the day. Lakhs were jailed. Thousands suffered loss of limb, hundreds died on lathi charges, firing. Sapru, Jaykar helped to bring about a truce. Gandhi was released on June 25, 1931. while resting in Bombay, he took counsels with his associates, he wanted peace but with honour.





The Nehrus



Drawn into the political struggle, largely under Gandhi influence, Motilal and Jawaharlal occupied the centre of the stage. At Allahabad they had presided over, addressed meeting attended by leaders like Kripalani, Tandon, Malavia. When in February 1931, Motilal died, Gandhi felt more than "Windowed", said, "What I have lost is loss for ever". Jawaharlal was a rich legacy.



Karachi Mandate



The congress met at Karachi in March, adopted a resolution moved by Jawaharlal and secondary by Badshan Khan endorsing the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. It reaffirmed the goal of "Poorna Swaraj", authorised Gandhi to represent it at the Second Round Table Conference in London. Congress also extolled the bravery of Bhagat Singh and his associates who were martyrs in the country’s cost.





Way Clear for R. T. C.



Official implementation of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was partial, trady. There was repression in the frontier province, tension in U. P. Gandhi stood by the pledge to honour the truce acquainted Viceroy Willingdon at Simla with official branches. After a second settlement, in August, Gandhi saw the way clear for the R. T. C. ; at Bombay the nation bade him speed on August 29.



In Quest of Freedom



Malaviya, Sarojini Naidu, Madhav and Pyarelal- his secretary Miraben, and son Devdas accompanied Gandhi. On board S. S. Rajputana he was in high spirits, chatted with other passengers, made friends and play with children, held prayer meetings, spoke, examined the ship’s instruments, dozed on the sunlit deck, and most of the time plied the spinning wheel.





Friends Every Where



At Suez and port side, Gandhi received Egypt’s greetings, met Indian deputations, talk to journalist, at Marseilles, European friends, like Deenbandhu C. F. Andrews. Arriving in London on September 12, Gandhi and party proceeded to the East End, the quarter of the poor coal miners and factory hands, live in their midst of Kingsley Hall, managed by Muriel Lester, his English hostess.
Non-cooperation is Born


The Indian National Congress at Calcutta approved of non-cooperation: boycott of law-courts, government educational institutions and foreign goods. Gandhi saw it as the only alternative to violence for redress of the Khilafats and the Punjab wrongs. The founding of Gujarat Vidyapith in November 1920 was a symbol of the national re-awakening.



Swaraj fund-Swadeshi

"Swaraj in one year" was Gandhi’s slogan. Leaders of many shades came together, as at Madras, but few trusted Swaraj could came so quickly. The people rising to Gandhi’s call, raise a 10 million rupee memorial fund for Tilak who died on August1, 1920. a year, later a spectacular bonfire of foreign cloth ushered in the era of Swadeshi.



From Yerawada to Belgaum

1922 saw an eclipse: following violence at Chauri Chaura, Gandhi suspended non-cooperation. Arrested for seditious writings for Young India and tried, March 18, he was sentenced to six years, but an operation of appendicitis brought early release from Yerawada Prison. 1924 was to see him once again at helm at a Belgaum congress.



‘Unity’ Fast



In September 1924, Gandhi imposed on himself at 21 days fast to end Hindu-Muslim tension, an act of religion which taught him to love all equally. It restored peace in the riot-ridden country, brought all leaders together, let to sum cleansing of hearts. It resulted in a communal truce.

Deshbandhu’s Death



1925 was a year of calamity: Deshbandhu C. R. Das, Swarajist leader, died in June at Darjeeling where Gandhi had just spent some days with him. It had brought nearer, the Mahatma who preached non-cooperation, and Deshbandhu who gave fight to the Government to the councils. Disconsolate at his death, Gandhi wrote a touching obituary in the glow of the funeral pyre. under a tree, he called for discipline and concern for duties, not merely rights.



On many fronts



1925-28 provided two landmarks of Gandhi’s leadership; Vaikom Satyagraha for giving untouchables use of temple roads, and the founding of All-India Spinner’s Association. For the rest the stage was occupied by Lajpat Ray, martyred during the Simon Commission boycott, hero of the Bardoli Satyagraha, Motilal Nehru, author of the Constitution Report, and Jawaharlal, champion of the "Complete Independence" resolution at the Calcutta congress.



Wheel of Time



And so the Wheel of time turned on. Gandhi’s use of the bicycle- a rare performance in order to punctual at meeting – indicated the lengths he was ready to go. And his constant companion, the spinning wheel, remained with him wherever he went, an instrument which spun the destiny of the country and symbolised his identification with the poor.

Salt Satyagraha



1929-30: "The Year of Grace". Gandhi was gathering his forces for onslaught on the citadel of authority. The "salt Satyagraha" was not merely a protest against taxing the poor man’s diet, or a disobedience of the salt lows. In Gandhi’s eyes it was a "battle or rights against might". While the world wondered, the "Dandi March" became the "First shot" in this unique fight.

Dandi March



Small through the chosen band, its 200 mile march to the sea recalled the other "Great March" of 1913 Gandhi had led in South Africa. He had sent viceroy Irwin an "Ultimatum" before embarking on civil disobedience. On "bended knees" he had asked "for bread and received a stone instead". On the knight of may 5, 1930, they stole of him like thieves in the night and arrested him.



Truce and Release



India was a fire. Satyagraha, strikes, picketing, boycott of foreign goods and no-tax campaigns were the other of the day. Lakhs were jailed. Thousands suffered loss of limb, hundreds died on lathi charges, firing. Sapru, Jaykar helped to bring about a truce. Gandhi was released on June 25, 1931. while resting in Bombay, he took counsels with his associates, he wanted peace but with honour.





The Nehrus



Drawn into the political struggle, largely under Gandhi influence, Motilal and Jawaharlal occupied the centre of the stage. At Allahabad they had presided over, addressed meeting attended by leaders like Kripalani, Tandon, Malavia. When in February 1931, Motilal died, Gandhi felt more than "Windowed", said, "What I have lost is loss for ever". Jawaharlal was a rich legacy.



Karachi Mandate



The congress met at Karachi in March, adopted a resolution moved by Jawaharlal and secondary by Badshan Khan endorsing the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. It reaffirmed the goal of "Poorna Swaraj", authorised Gandhi to represent it at the Second Round Table Conference in London. Congress also extolled the bravery of Bhagat Singh and his associates who were martyrs in the country’s cost.





Way Clear for R. T. C.



Official implementation of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was partial, trady. There was repression in the frontier province, tension in U. P. Gandhi stood by the pledge to honour the truce acquainted Viceroy Willingdon at Simla with official branches. After a second settlement, in August, Gandhi saw the way clear for the R. T. C. ; at Bombay the nation bade him speed on August 29.



In Quest of Freedom



Malaviya, Sarojini Naidu, Madhav and Pyarelal- his secretary Miraben, and son Devdas accompanied Gandhi. On board S. S. Rajputana he was in high spirits, chatted with other passengers, made friends and play with children, held prayer meetings, spoke, examined the ship’s instruments, dozed on the sunlit deck, and most of the time plied the spinning wheel.





Friends Every Where



At Suez and port side, Gandhi received Egypt’s greetings, met Indian deputations, talk to journalist, at Marseilles, European friends, like Deenbandhu C. F. Andrews. Arriving in London on September 12, Gandhi and party proceeded to the East End, the quarter of the poor coal miners and factory hands, live in their midst of Kingsley Hall, managed by Muriel Lester, his English hostess.

Meeting the people




Scotland Yard had provided two top detectives to guard him, but he needed none. Wherever Mahatma went, children and woman, simple folk and sophisticated gentry flocked round him, as when Charles Chaplin, the famous comedian, called. And it is on record that it was Gandhi also who made him laugh.



Talking to Leaders



Gandhi met many groups of intellectuals, social workers and students. Addressed many meetings. He visited coal miners cottages, east end children celebrated his birthday with candles and cakes, leaders of all shades of thought-social, political, religious- discussed India with him; for instance, the "Red Dean" of Canterbury, Dr. Hewlett Johnson.



Welcome in Lancashire



Gandhi visited the cotton mills District, Lancashire, hard hit by foreign cloth boycott loom idle, chimneys unsmoking, men unemployed, woman miserable. But when he talked to them, explained the plight of India’s peasants, they understand him, they understand him, even cheered him. And he took time off to attend the Dairy Animal show at Islington and to pat the prize-winning goats.



Futile Quest



And in the midst of all his social calls, Gandhi attend to his main business, the Round Table Conference; he pleaded fervently with the British leaders to give his country freedom, to avoid parting of ways …. But they listened him not, and he left Britain’s shores empty-handed. On the way home at Villeneuve in Switzerland Gandhi met Romain Rollands, the French savant.



Fresh Ordeal



1932: Returning to India, Gandhiji saw Willingdon’s Ordinance raj everywhere: close associates, colleagues arrested. Soon he himself was taken to Yeravda Prison. In September he fast against the Communal Award lying under the mango tree, stirred the Hindu conscience and led to the Yeravda Pact. On a second fast, in May 1933, for Harijan work, he was released.



From Sabarmati to Segaon



In July 1933, after the solemn last prayer, Gandhi disbanded the Sabarmati Ashram. In September he moved to Satyagraha Ashram at Wardha. Henceforth, the morning walks were on Wardha’s plains. In November, commenced his country-wide Harijan tour, starting from Nagpur, for rousing the masses to a sense of their duty in regard to the abolition of untouchability.



Tireless pilgrimage



The story of Gandhiji is the story of his tireless pilgrimage throughout the length and breath of the country for the emancipation of the dumb, downtrodden masses. The tour of 1934 had for its aim the uplift of the "untouchable" whom he called the "Hari Jans" or the children of god.



The Blot of Untouchability



Gandhiji addressed meetings, spoke to people everywhere of the Blot of untouchability and the Hindus duty to remove it. When Bihar was devastated by the earthquake in January in 1934, he rushed their to organize relief, but he considered disaster God’s punishment for the sin of the Hindus.




Retirement from Congress



In October 1934, at the Bombay congress parted company. He differed from congress in the interpretation of the goal: Poorna Swaraj for his was much more than independence. Means mattered as much as ends. The Congress session paved the way for the settings up the All-India Village Industrious Association.



Constructive work



Village work, Swadeshi claimed most of Gandhiji’s time and attention. Jamnalal Bajaj, J. C. Kumarappa were among those who teamed up behind. He addressed constructive workers from different parts of the country, showed keen interest in such basic things as compost-making, vital for rebuilding the village economy.



Work and Prayer



Harijan uplift dominated Gandhiji’s mind; he held counsel with trusted social workers as Thakkar Bapa. At the same time, he combined with thought and the dead the act of prayer, leading the tallest of his associates to mass prayers in the Bhangi or Harijan colony. Meanwhile, the Government of India Act of 1935 was on the anvil.





Plague Relief



Relief to the plague-stricken had always a special appeal for Gandhiji weather in South Africa or in India. In 1935, Borsad and other Gujarat Villages suffered an epidemic. With Morarji Desai, Sardar Patel and other trusted lieutenants, Gandhiji toured them, stressed sanitation, and educated the people in the riddance of rats.



Body of Mind



In his dynamic programme for the reconstruction of rural India, Gandhiji had the support of intellectuals like Nehru and Azad. While, in 1936, he presided over the Literary Conference at Nagpur and extolled the virtues of literature, he lost no opportunity to stress the dignity of labour, setting an example himself.



Segaon: Symbol of Services



The village of Segaon near Wardha in which he settled down was to become Sevagram, the village of service. His simple mud hut was a landmark; it draw the lofty no less than the lowly, seeking guidance, a formula for peace among individuals, societies, nations; His benign presence was a benediction.



Temples of Learning and of Love



In October 1936, Gandhiji went to Banaras, but on a different sort of pilgrimage. He met Madan Mohan Malaviya, founder of the Hindu University, a temple of learning. But Gandhiji inaugurated there the Bharat Mata Mandir, the temple of love. Symbolic of his faith in the future, he planted a mango tree.

 
India is a Village




To Gandhiji the real India was rural India. The event of the year 1936 was the Faizpur Congress in village settings, starting, the mode for the future. Nandlal Bose of Shantiniketan toiled to picture rural culture. Seeing it, deeply impressed, Gandhiji wrote "The heart, having got a little, hankers for all".



The Great Proclamation



1937 opened with Gandhiji's going on another pilgrimage, this time to the South. The Temple Proclamation of Travancore had thrown open the Ananda Padmanabha temple to Harijans. Gandhiji hailed it as an "act of God". At Kanyakumari, where "three waters me and furnish a sight of unequalled in the world", he performed ablutions.



Congress in Power



Congress came into power in seven provinces, rejected Federation, demanded a constituent assembly. Through "Harijan" Gandhiji spoke for the new era. In October 1937, he enunciated his concept of a new education. Staying with Subhash Bose in Calcutta at A. I. C. C. time, Gandhiji strove for release of political prisoners.



Rest and Recreation

Poor health compelled Gandhiji to seek rest, relaxation at the Juhu beach. But, back in Sevagram in January 1938, politics pursued him; Congress ministries in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar had resigned. The issue came up at Haripura Congress. With his usual solicitude, Gandhiji inspected a rural crafts show.





On Many Fronts



At Haripura, President Subhash Bose prayed that Gandhiji may be spared for keeping the Independence struggle above bitterness, hatred, for humanity's sake. Gandhiji arduously worked for political prisoners the frontier where Badshah Khan had wrought the miracle of converting warlike Pathans into non-violent Khudai Khidmatgar.







The Frontier Tours



In the Frontier Province, Gandhiji saw, at prayer meetings and others, perfect discipline, orderliness, the virtue of silence. It renewed his faith in non-violence, of which he repeatedly spoke to the Khudai Khidmatgars. He saw Badshah Khan's handwork every where, paid him tribute as a "man of God". The two came closer.







The Fiery Ordeal



1939 saw Gandhiji face a fiery ordeal; the ruler of Rajkot, His committed a breach of his promise of constitutional reforms to the people. After fruitless negotiation, Gandhiji resorted to fasting, breaking it only when, aware of country-wide emotion, the Viceroy intervened, to ask the Chief Justice of India to adjudicate.





Within and Without



Before the Tripuri Congress, Gandhiji was busy in Delhi discussing with Working Committee members, Jawaharlal Nehru, his trusted guide in international problems. The Egyptian Wafd delegation to the Congress called on Gandhiji assured him of fraternal sympathy, good wishes in the freedom struggle.







"Tripuri a Preparation, Rajkot a Skirmish"



Congress met at Tripuri in March 1939 without Gandhiji who was convalescing after the fast. In April he had a serried of interviews with the Viceroy over the State problem. The Rajkot award was issued on April 4; the Viceroy wrote, assured Gandhiji of its full implementation. But Gandhiji saw trouble ahead.







Crucial Time Ahead



Gandhiji perceived in the Rajkot Award the taint of coercion and renounced it. Rajkot had robbed him of youth. His addressing a Women Graduates' Convocation at Bombay was the calm before the storm. In august 1939, seeing the gathering war clouds, the Working Committee declared its opposition to imperialist war.





Unbounded Compassion



Compassion for all living things was Gandhiji's characteristic, whether it was a new-born calf or leprosy-stricken-Parchure Shastri at Sevagram. He founded the one, tended the other. Keenly aware of the need to adopt a rational, common sense approach to leprosy, he even interested himself in studying the causes.



Kamala Nehru Hospital

Gandhiji had considered multiplication of hospitals as an evil symptom of modern civilization. But the diseases had to be helped. And so, he gladly laid the foundation stone of a hospital at Allahabad in memory of Kamala, Nehru's beloved wife.



A Sacred Pledge

1940: Independence Day: Gandhiji explained significance, clarified role of students. In February, after fruitless talks with Viceroy, Gandhiji saw widening gulf between Britain and Nationalist – India, during visit to Shantiniketan, he pledged support to Tagore's truly international creation, the Vishva Bharati, "the vessel carrying the cargo of his life's best treasure".





Individual Satyagraha

At Ramgarh Congress, Gandhiji spoke of every Congress Committee as a Satyagraha-Committee. Britain suffered grave reverses in the war. As test of her good faith, Gandhiji demanded freedom to preach against war and participation in it. In October, with Gandhiji's blessings, Vinoba initiated the Satyagraha followed, after his arrest, by Jawaharlal Nehru. Soon thousands were in jail.




Constructive Programme

In December-1940, Gandhiji published a small, 25 page booklet "Constructive Programme: Its Meaning and Place", in the achievement of non-violent independence, a dynamic document and covering every important aspect of the country's social and economical life. The Working Committee, Meeting at Bardoli, absolved him from leadership, leaving him free for constructive and anti-war work.





The Voice of Conscience

Suspended when organising and conducting the Civil Disobedience movement, the Harijan group of weeklies resumed publication: Gandhiji used them as forum for the discussion of the problems thrown up by the war: week after week appeared searching articles on subjects like: "Price Control", "Plea for Calmness", "Desirability of Exodus", "Scorched Earth", etc.



"Post-dated Cheque"

In March 1942 Cripps came to India with an offer repeating the promise of a constitution making body after the war till then demanding effective execution of the war against the threat of mounting disaster in Asia, consequent of Japan's entry into the arena. Gandhiji described the offer as a postdated cheque; appealed to the British to withdraw from every Asiatic and African possession, at least from India. In other words: "Quit India".



"Quit India"

Gandhiji appealed to Chiang-Ki Shek, President Roosevelt to see the truth behind his "Quit India" call to the British. In August first week, he groomed the historic "Quit India" resolution at the BOMBAY A I C C. "The freedom of India must be the symbol of and prelude to the freedom of all other Asiatic Nations…" Patel, Azad, Nehru lent eloquent support to the plea. Government's reply to Gandhiji's call to "Do or Die" was to unleash brutal violence, arrest leaders, rank and file.



Country in Revolt

India, deprived of her leads, whisked away to an unknown destination, replied to the organised violence of the British bureaucracy by denying cooperation and be acts of sabotage of railways, communication… The people believed sanction for this lay in some instruction linked up wrongly with Gandhiji: the Government replied with a heavy hand…



"Do or Die"

At the historic "Quit India" A.I.C. C Session in Bombay, on August 8 1942, Gandhiji asked the country to be ready to "Do or Die". Government unleashed repression, arrested Gandhiji and other leaders at dawn, whisked them away to an unknown destination. A few days later died Mahadev Desai, Gandhiji's Secretary, dearer than a son, at Aga Khan Palace.



Kasturba Passes

Aga Khan Palace was to be more than a prison, a Place of Pilgrimage. For here passed away Kasturba on Mahashivratri day, February 22 1944. She had been the image of the noblest among Indian womanhood: simple, self denying, loyal: Gandhiji mourned the loss of a life long companion who had shared his battles, been unto him like a shadow.



Release from Ordeal

Jail life this time had been an agony. Bearing the cross, Gandhiji sought through a series of letters to vindicate himself against the charges of the bureaucracy which held him responsible for disturbances in the country. He accused it of hastily and leonine violence, went through the ordeal of a 21-day fast. Released, he recouped his shattered health at Juhu, hallowed by his prayer meetings.





Road Blocks

Gandhiji met his colleagues in the Working Committee meeting in June 1945, which supported Congress participation in the Simla Conference: but the conference broke down. He toured Bengal, visited Shantiniketan to lay the foundation of the Deenabandhu Memorial Hospital. Andrews on his death bed, had told Gandhiji, "Mohan, I see Swaraj coming".



Constructive Mission

During his tour of South India, Gandhiji's preoccupation was with the Rasthrabhasha: Hindustani; he presided over the Convocation of Hindi Prachar Sabha, he explained at a Worker's Conference, stressed the place of spinning in relieving-distress. Visiting the Meenakshi temple, he explained the implication of removal of untouchability.





Transfer of Power

The Country has passed through the crisis of the Bengal famine. The Labour Government in Britain sent a mission to India to discuss transfer of Power. Talks and conferences were held, but the problem remained unsolved. At last the Cabinet Mission announced its own plan, set a date for transfer of Power. The Congress accepted Interim Government, the Muslim League kept out.



Mission of Peace

The Muslim League declared "direct action", Calcutta ran rivers in blood in communal strife. Noakhali caught the virus. From Calcutta, after the miracle of his fast had restored peace there, Gandhiji went to Noakhali to restore harmony, to wipe the tear from every eye. He went from village to village on his mission of peace.



Lonely Pilgrim

The lonely pilgrim of peace at Noakhali was passing through his finest hour, when he rose to his full stature as a humanist, above all politics and creeds. His doctrine of Ahimsa was being put to its severest trails; he even confessed his own failure in applying it and his groping for light. Nehru came to him in this hour of agony, could not change Gandhiji's determination to "do or die" in Noakhali.



Dark Clouds Ahead

After the epic tour of Noakhali, the call came from Bihar: The mission too was the same: restoring of peace to the land of Janaka and Tulsidas. With Badshah Khan Gandhiji toured troubled Bihar, bringing new hope and courage to the refugees, visiting ravaged homes and persuading the fleeing folk to return, pledging his own life for their safety. Portents came from Delhi of danger ahead.





The Message of Asia

Gandhiji met the Mountbattens for the first time in March 1947. The Asian Relations Conference provided him with an opportunity to remind representatives of Asia that her message of Atom Bomb. Asia, the cradle of religions, had through her great teachers showed the path of wisdom.





Brotherhood of man

Asian delegations called on Gandhiji during this time for a message of hope: Tibetans, Arabs, Jews, Indonesians, Vietnamese, Burmese tendered him their respect. All got the same counsel:
the message of Buddha. Fraternization and not strife; non-violence and not violence, thus the sage spoke while he spun.






Freedom Came

In August 1947, the fateful month, the call again came to Gandhiji to visit Noakhali on the eve of Independence. But Gandhiji tarried at Calcutta to "pour water over raging fire". He held talks with Suhrawardy and others for bringing peace to tormented city. On the midnight of 14th, India awoke to "Line and freedom", as Nehru said when taking pledge.





Refuge Relief

Gandhiji strove hard to bring relief to the uprooted and homeless refugees wherever they were massed in camps; visiting them and talking to them about their grievances; at Kurukshetra, Hardwar, Purana Quila. For the first time, in November 1947 he was persuaded to broadcast to the refugees from All India Radio Station in Delhi.



Divided India

The National tricolour at last flew on the historic Red Fort as Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose has once planned. But the country had been derived and left a legacy of hatred, bitterness and feuds resulting from partition, which were soon to flare up in another form. Besides, the refugee problem, involving millions of people on the move, overshadowed all other problem.





Kashmir Invasion

Gandhiji had visited Jammu and Kashmir in August 1947. Communal harmony prevailed there and Gandhiji believed that it would be a lesson to the whole of India. But soon that fair land was to suffer fire and rapine, invaded by raiders from across the border, inspired, instigated and led by Pakistan. Kashmir had acceded to India and the latter was bound to defend it.



Fasting for communal peace

Communal frenzy enveloped the capital of India too and for some time complete lawlessness prevailed. Gandhiji saw that he had no choice but to resort to the last weapon in the armoury of Satyagraha. He under-took a fast until communal amity was restored. It stirred the conscience of all communities, and the leaders met and signed the pledge for communal peace.





The Portent

Touched to the quick by Gandhiji's ordeal, India gave the 55 crore cheque to Pakistan which it had withheld. This and Gandhiji's solicitude for the Muslim minority, part of his broad humanity, roused fanatical Hindu hatred. At an evening prayer, on January 20, a bomb exploded, damaging a wall. The would be assassin was arrested, but released at Gandhiji's insistence. Gandhiji would have no security measures around and on the prayer ground.



The Final Act

January 30 1948: the evening temple bell and the mezzin's voice call the faithful to prayer. Bapu wends his way to the prayer ground. A man steps forward, pretending to offer obeisance. Gandhiji salutes him. Three shots ring out. Bapu falls, still smiling, with the words "Hey Ram" on his lips. They take him into the house. The light that led India for decades is extinguished, Nehru broadcasts. A gloom darker than darkness descends on the world.



The World Mourns

They Kept the last vigil over the mortal remains of a man who had shed the fear of death and defied all vigilance to protect him. Tired of fraternal strife, where brother killed brother he had invited death as a long lost friend. It had come, making of him a martyr, the like of whom the world sees once in ages. The United Nations lowered its flag.



The Last Journey

They carried him through a million-strong crowd of weeping men, women and children. To all of them he was Bapu, father, in an almost personal way. He had so long dominated the country's landscape and life that he was part of it, and it was impossible to think of them without his uplifting, elevating benevolent presence. To the world at large India was always the land of Gandhi.



"Bapu Amar Hogaye"

He was laid on pyre of sandalwood and roses. But little did he need their fragrance whose own aroma would persist till the end of time as the world's gentlest, kindliest leader of men whose sanction was only love. High and low, royalty and commoner grieved as the flames consumed the earthly tabernacle of great soul. And none more disconsolate and orphaned than his political heir, Jawaharlal Nehru.



The Holy Ashes

They gathered the ashes and filled urns with them and carried them in procession. Thousands filed past showering flowers on the ashes of one who, in life, had wanted none of them, refusing all adoration and honours. He claimed to be no more than the least among them, made of the same flesh and blood. Yet he had a spark of divinity that distinguished him from all the rest.



To the Sangam

The urns were transported over thousands of miles covering the land, as in life he had done in countless journeys to his people, his tireless feet worn out in the pilgrimage of their service. And wherever the flower bedecked train halted, once again the multitudes teemed in as they had done before, shouting "Mahatma Gandhi Ki Jai".



Consignment to Holy Waters

And at Prayag, the confluence to Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati, the Triveni, Jawaharlal Nehru and Devdas Gandhi consigned to the holy waters the ashes which rendered them holier still. And so the ancient tradition of the last Teerthan Sanskar, speeding the soul to Moksha, was completed for a man who saw and sought no Moksha except in the salvation of people.



The World's Homage

And at Rajghat men and women of all nations came to pay their silent homage to a man who was no royalty, whose universal mind went out across narrow barriers of race and country, who belonged to no single nation though they in India called him the Father of the Nation, who stood for all mankind and all that was noble in the human spirit. And they planted the saplings of plants and trees from all climes. "Let the winds of all cultures blow around me", he had said.



Rajghat

And over the simple earthen mound where his body had rested on its last bed and where the ashes had mingled with the elements of the earth, the men whom he had led to freedom in the unique bloodless way, paid homage to the Master; scattering flowers. Chanting the hymns of all religions to him whose highest religion was the love of man.



The Mausoleum

He had believed not in palaces and mansions; he had lived among the hovels of the lowliest and the lost. He had wanted no statues, no memorials built to him. He little needed homage and hallelujahs. And yet they built around the little earth of his cremation, a Mausoleum.

SAVE NATURE ......... OTHERWISE WE'LL DIE

harmony with Nature locally and globally. We acknowledge the inherent value of all life, human and non-human, and treat all living beings with compassion and respect.

Those who dwell among the beauties and mysteries of the earth are never alone or weary of life. Those who contemplate the beauty of the earth find reserves of strength that will endure as long as life lasts.

                        I believe in the cosmos. All of us are linked to the cosmos. So nature is my god. To me, nature is sacred. Trees are my temples and forests are my cathedrals.

Trees, wood and people

Brian Clifford

Introduction
Although there are numerous new materials available today, such as the great variety of plastics, many people maintain an appreciation of wood. This is partly because of its tactile and visual qualities and partly, perhaps, because of a bias that is built into our genes. Many people also have great regard for the trees from which the wood comes and are concerned about the wanton destruction of large areas of forest and the implications of this for the future of the planet.
Despite these concerns it is possible that the full importance of trees, and the wood they provide, to the historic, current, and future needs of the human race is still not fully understood. Since they evolved trees have had a great influence on the shaping of the ecology of the planet and in determining the present arrangements of life on earth. Of particular importance for us has been the role of trees in the evolution of mankind and the development of human cultures and communities.
The way in which the relationship between mankind and trees has developed has led to a deep paradox. We love trees, we need trees, but with chain saws and boxes of matches we are eating into their surviving strongholds. And, when the few great forests that are left in the world have been felled, the human race may become an endangered species too.
How has this situation come about? In part it is because in developing into an organism that has had great evolutionary success the tree has created a material with many useful properties. At the same time, because trees have been so successful in colonizing large areas of the surface of the world, they now find themselves in competition for living space with a very recent newcomer. So we burn trees to make room for ourselves.
Thus mankind has had a relationship with trees which has developed over millions of years. In the future, too, if we permit it, trees will continue to provide great benefits to mankind. This relationship, which now embraces ethical as well as spiritual and material values, deserves detailed consideration.



The origins of man
As life on earth evolved trees became the dominant plants over much of the land surface of the earth. At on time tropical, sub-tropical and temperate forests covered much of the Americas, Africa, western Europe, China, Japan, Oceania, and southern Australia. These ancient forests had an important effect on the climate, both rainfall and temperature, and, as a consequence, on the evolution of other flora and fauna.

Among the creatures that evolved in this environment was the ancestor of man. This primitive animal was a prosimian, a small, rat-like animal, which lived on the ground. At some stage this creature took to the trees. Eventually, after a long period (about 50 million years), during which it evolved into an ape-like creatures, it returned to the ground.
The period spent in the trees was of great formative importance; this was the environment in which man's basic structures, brain, sense organs, limbs and reproductive system, evolved. In response to the exigencies of living in trees the animal's paws were modified into members able to grip: the claws atrophied, the digits lengthened, and an opposed thumb developed. The eyes became larger and moved towards the front of the head providing three-dimensional vision. In concert with these bodily changes, and their application in confronting the dangers in the tree tops, the creature's brain developed new features and increased in power.
In time more adaptations, coupled with subtle changes in the environment, took place. The shape of the face continued to change, the nose receded, the eyes moved right to the front, and colour vision developed. The hands and fingers became more flexible making them capable of delicate and precise movements. The limbs developed too, providing an increase in agility and reaction speeds. These transformations were again mapped by physical changes, and increased capacity, in the brain.
Thus, prosimian developed into simian. In response to environmental pressures some species in the simian line developed greatly increased body size that permitted still larger brains. The increase in stature resulted in changes in posture that enabled some of them to stand upright. Eventually, at least one of these species was able to walk. It was these changes that led to the descent from the trees and eventually to homo sapiens. So, it can be seen, without trees the evolution of prosimian into homo sapiens would never have taken place. We would not be here.
The wonder and the mystery
There is another aspect of the effect of trees to consider: on many people they exert a powerful emotional influence. Since our ancestors lived in, and depended on, trees for millions of years it is conceivable that they work their magic on us through ancestral memories derived from that formative period.
To many people a tree is a source of spiritual sustenance and renewal. A tree is a thing of beauty and wonderment, huge, but full of life and movement. A deciduous tree is the embodiment of the changing seasons: a stark framework in winter, bursting life in spring, a vast green canopy in summer and the bearer of seeds and fruit in the autumn. It is the embodiment of man's condition: birth, life, death, regeneration and rebirth. The rising sap is the spirit of life, seeds and fruit are the symbols of fertility.
The wonder and the mystery of trees is such that they have an important place in religion, myth, folklore, superstition and story telling; as a consequence the tree has been a powerful cultural symbol in many societies from primitive times to the present day. Many trees have been worshipped as gods or seen as the dwelling place of spirits. Groves of trees have become sacred places. Such trees, or woods, have also become the places where tribal rituals or ceremonies are carried out. Objects made from wood - icons, images, masks, amulets and lucky charms - have also incorporated this magical status. The common saying 'touch-wood', to save the tempting of fate, probably has its origins in these associations.
The symbol of the tree may also provide a structure for a wider system of belief. The legendary ash tree of Scandinavia, Yggdrasil, forms the basis of Norse mythology; whilst its branches reach into the heavens, the home of the gods, its roots go down to the underworld. The trunk passes through middle Earth, linking the three realms, and forming the bridge along which the gods can pass. In this way the tree can be seen as the greatest symbol of all: a representation of the whole cosmos.
The spectacle of the tree as it passes through the seasons of the year can exert a strong emotional effect on people. Many of us feel this. But there is yet another way in which trees may have affected primitive peoples. Trees live a long time and, in relation to the lives of men and women, they may have seemed immortal. This would have added to their magical quality.
The elders of a village may have sat under the same tree for generations. And trees which had particular importance to the tribe, perhaps as markers, or signposts, to food or other significant locations, might have seemed to have had a permanent place in its traditions and oral history.
Numerous species of trees live 500 years or more, some live much longer still. There are bristlecone pines growing today on the mountains of California and Nevada that are confirmed to be 4,300 years old. Some yew trees in England may have been living even longer than that, possibly 5,000 years. This could well be the reason why yew trees have marked the location of religious sites in the British Isles over the millennia. Many Christian churches, which so often have yews in their grounds, were built on sites that had a tradition of pagan religious rituals. So the yew tree probably had magical significance to ancient Britons.
Thus, trees have been of continuing spiritual benefit to the human race; they are beautiful organisms carrying a great weight of symbolism. We have seen, too, that we owe our very existence to trees. But our debt to trees goes much farther than this. The development of human cultures and civilization has been dependent on wood based technologies.

The importance of wood
Let us think for a moment about some of the important discoveries or techniques that have been crucial to the development of modern society. Where would we be without fire, agriculture, the wheel, the use of metals, sources of power, spinning and weaving, building, printing and music?
Wood burns readily and produces heat. As a consequence it has long been used for cooking and protection from the cold. These factors assisted early man to change his diet and to migrate to colder regions where he was forced to use his ingenuity to survive. Wood can also be changed into charcoal; without that early man would have been unable to smelt metals. Before the use of coal developed with the industrial revolution, wood was also used to provide heat for making pottery, glass and bricks.
The first farmers probably just scraped a furrow with a stick. Later the wooden plough was invented. At first this may have been drawn by people but eventually the power of animals was harnessed with the aid of wooden yokes for both oxen and horses. As farming skills developed, and productivity increased, more artefacts of wood were required. These included devices for scattering seed, for harvesting the crop, and for threshing. Bowls, churns, butter moulds, cheese presses, and other items, were required in the dairy.
The wheel is one of the great inventions - many developments in transport, machinery and power stemmed from this one idea. The first crude wheels, made of solid planks butted together, were supplanted by the spoked wheel as skills in carpentry improved. Wind and water mills, the earliest sources of power (other than animals), were largely constructed of wood with a minimal proportion of metal parts. The transmission of power in these mills was achieved by trains of wooden gear wheels.
Similarly wood formed a large part in the development of transport. Wooden ships, bridges, locks, and staithes formed the basis of water transport. A multitude of wooden wagons and carriages were employed on land. For handling goods there were wooden barrels, tubs, wicker baskets and wooden cranes. Wooden pipes were used extensively to transport water. The first railways consisted of wooden trucks running on wooden track. Even the first aircraft were made of wood.
Wood was used extensively in mechanisms of all kinds from clocks to mill machinery; these included weaving looms, cotton spinning machines, and agricultural implements. Wood was used for furniture and all manner of things in the home. Even when metal performed an important function such as the head of a hammer or an axe, or the blade in a plane, wood would have been used for the handle, or the body, of the tool.
Wood was employed throughout the world as a building material for houses and other structures. Even where a great building, such as a cathedral, was principally made of stone, it could not have been built without wood. This was required for frameworks of various kinds to provide support during construction, scaffolding for work platforms, as well as providing the means to transport the stone.
Writing, the printed word, and books, have been key elements in the development of civilization. There are a number of materials that can carry writing, and paper can be made from any organic fibre; nevertheless, the spread of books, and reading, has been dependent on the manufacture of paper from wood pulp. Printing was originally carried out with wooden printing blocks, first on textiles and then on paper.
Wood has also been important in the development of art and culture in many different societies. Men learned to carve and decorate their wooden buildings and furniture in increasingly elaborate ways. The significance of trees in religion has already been referred to but, in addition, wood has also been carved to create statues, icons, talismans, charms, and other kinds of religious symbols.
The development of music also depended on the use of wood for making instruments. Because wood is relatively easy to work it has been used to make musical instruments from very early times. Most primitive societies have percussion instruments such as clappers and drums. Some 5000 years ago the Sumerians used rattles, tambourines, flutes, reed instruments, and horns. Except for the last mentioned all of these would have required the extensive use of wood for its constructional and resonant qualities.
The development of these instruments continued through the Greek and Roman civilizations. It achieved its full flowering (in the western European tradition) when public concert giving began in the late 17th century. At that time most of the instruments of the orchestra were still made almost entirely of wood. Even today, with modern metal working techniques, plastics and electronic devices, the use of wooden instruments in orchestras is likely to continue for the indefinite future.
Many important chemicals were, and still are, derived from trees. Gum arabic, Canada balsam, cedarwood oil, rubber and the so called 'naval stores', turpentine, rosin, pitch and tar, are exuded by, or tapped from, trees. Tannin, used to cure leather, is obtained from bark. Cork, used as a float for fishing nets (amongst other things), is the bark of a species of oak tree. The leaves and fruits of trees, besides being an important foodstuff and source of vitamins for both people and animals, have been used in many folk medicines.
Other chemicals used in industry today are derived from wood pulp. These are mainly cellulose based and include cellophane, celluloid, rayon and other plastics. Purified wood pulp, which is almost pure cellulose, is regenerated in the form of synthetic fibres or sheets. These have great tensile strength and protective qualities. Cellophane, for example, is ideal for use as wrapping and the strength of rayon is utilized in industrial belts and tyre cords.
In all the uses outlined above wood has had a benign influence as an ingredient in the development of the modern civilized state. But there is also a negative aspect: as well as providing a material for the fabrication of hunting implements wood has enabled men to make weapons to assault and kill each other. Without wood to make charcoal it is unlikely that gunpowder would have been invented. Nitrated cellulose, derived from extracts from wood, is used to make gun-cotton and cordite. This, of course, is not the fault of trees but of man. But war and conquest, politics and diplomacy, have played a significant role in the way in which civilization and culture have developed. Trees have contributed to this as well.
Until the industrial revolution had got well underway, at the end of the 18th century, the use of wood, in one way or another, was essential for practically every industry. In a short article such as this it is impossible to do more than sketch in the many uses of wood before modern times.
As industrialization progressed with the development of the steam engine, the increased use of coal and the spreading employment of metals (particularly iron and steel), the importance of wood diminished to some extent. Nevertheless, despite the introduction of new materials, such as plastics, enormous amounts of wood are still being consumed.
Carbon fibre has been called a 'miracle material' but really it is wood which deserves that accolade. When linked with the inventive genius of mankind wood is amazingly versatile. This versatility is enhanced by the fact that different species have different characteristics all of which can be exploited by man for particular purposes. In general, however, the main structural qualities of wood are that, in relation to its weight, it is strong (in both compression and tension), it is flexible, and it is easy to work. When well finished, wood has decorative and tactile qualities: it has attractive figure plus a warm and silky feel.
The nature of wood
Trees evolved to become such a successful group of species that at one time forests covered much of the fertile land surface of the earth. In becoming so dominant the trees grew above other vegetation and spread out a canopy of leaves to catch the sunlight. As a consequence of this process trees are among the largest and longest living organisms on Earth. A North American redwood, for instance, can grow to 100 metres in height and weigh more than 2000 tons. A specimen of eucalyptus is said to have reached 130 metres (435 feet).
To grow tall the tree has become a miracle of engineering. In proportion to its height the trunk of a tree is a slender column. From this column numerous branches are cantilevered outwards; these in turn support further branches and twigs. On these grow the multitude of leaves that are required to perform functions necessary to sustain the entire organism. The roots underpin the structure, keep it standing, and seek out the nutrients it needs to grow and survive.
The tree not only needs to be able to defy gravity it also has to be able to withstand the stresses caused by wind. The leaves, twigs, branches, and much of the trunk too, are flexible; as a consequence they are able to align themselves with the wind, so cutting down the resistance. To be a successful organism, therefore, a tree must be both strong and flexible.
It is also a complex natural factory. It is a machine that is able to lift water and mineral salts out of the earth and carry them up to the multitude of leaves high above. Each leaf is a tiny chemical processing plant where photosynthesis takes place. Using energy, provided by sunlight, and chlorophyll, the green substance produced by the tree itself, the leaves perform the biochemical process of carbon fixation.
The root sap, the mixture of water and salts drawn from the roots, is combined with carbon dioxide gas in the air to form carbohydrates which flow away from the leaf as leaf sap, a sugar solution, which feeds the tree's life processes and enables it to create the tissues which form its structure.
The secret of a tree's growth lies in the cambium, a thin sheath of cells just beneath the bark, which covers every stem, twig and root. During the growing season the cambium creates new cells. The cells on its inner surface form rings of sapwood, first as early wood (or springwood) and then latewood (or summer wood) which is usually denser and darker. Together, the early wood and latewood form one annual ring. On its outer side the cambium forms a layer of bast. Outside the bast is the bark.
The living cells in the sapwood and the bast are hollow and, together with other specialist cells, form a network of tubes through which sap circulates around the tree, feeding it with nutrients. The walls of the cells are made up from ribbons of 'microfibrils' which, in turn, are formed from chains of cellulose molecules. The microfibrils are laid down in a series of layers which cross at different angles forming a kind of mat. As the cell ages this mat becomes impregnated with lignin (another hydro-carbon) which acts as a cement, thus creating a structure somewhat similar to glass reinforced plastic. This is one of the ways in which wood obtains its strength.
Thus, the characteristics of trees which enabled them to be such successful organisms also made their wood of great utility to man. The carboniferous nature of wood also made trees easy to destroy by burning.
The destruction of trees
As wood is so useful to man it may seem surprising that man has been so profligate with this natural legacy. There are a number of distinct reasons for this. One is that man has used up timber in manufacturing objects with complete disregard for the consequences. Another is the use of wood for heating and cooking. In some parts of Africa, and in Nepal, for instance, there are few trees left because the local people have cut them down to provide heat for cooking.
But the most significant reason of all is that in many cases trees are regarded as weeds which are preventing the use of land for other purposes: as somewhere to live and build, for agricultural use, for mining, and sometimes, as in the case of the Amazonian rain forest, to create a title to real estate. In such cases trees may be regarded as having a nil, or even a negative value, and will be regarded as rubbish to be disposed of in the most convenient way, usually by burning.
Another aspect of the problem is that short term gains have been preferred to much greater long term benefits. When harvested by clear felling, or other improper methods, hardwood trees represent a diminishing resource similar to fossil fuels and metal ores. However, when hardwood forests are correctly managed and the trees are extracted with care they can provide a sustainable yield of timber. At the same time, the tropical forests in particular, provide an environment which supports a wide range of sustainable products such as nuts, oils, juices, grains and pulses, rubber, and coca. They are also a source of important pharmaceutical products.
The problem, however, goes much deeper than this. The destruction of the tropical forests is not only short sighted in measurable economic terms but is leading to a potentially devastating erosion of the general environment.
The erosion of the environment
The reduction in the number of trees has two major effects as far as man is concerned: one is that it leads to a diminished environment, the other is that there is a loss of biological diversity.
The environment is eroded in a number of ways. The build up of carbon dioxide and other green house gases in the atmosphere, together with the damage to the ozone layer, presents a danger to all life on Earth. By taking up carbon dioxide the lost trees would have helped to mitigate the effects of global warming. Instead, slash and burn methods of forest clearance have added considerable amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
Large scale deforestation can lead to significant and widespread changes in climate. A tree transpires a considerable amount of water through its leaves into the air around it. An area of shade is also created under the leaf canopy. A small wood can create a micro-climate of its own. In summer the air inside the wood can be damper and cooler than it is outside. As a consequence the humidity will also be relatively high. In winter the wind shelter provided by the trees means that the wood is warmer inside than it is outside.
In the case of vast areas of rain forest these features are magnified to such an extent that they modify the environment; particularly the temperature and humidity of the air above the forest. This not only affects the amount of rainfall over the forest itself. It can also lead to changes in the climate over a much wider area.
The roots of the trees create a mat which holds the soil of the forest floor in place. When the trees are on the side of a hill the mat not only stops the soil from being washed away but also retards the rate at which water runs off. When the trees are removed over a wide area the rainfall may be diminished but the rain which does fall immediately flows into the valleys carrying with it much of the top soil. The streams and rivers in the valleys become clogged with silt and the hydrology of the region is severely modified. On flat ground, without the shade of the trees, the soil may quickly dry out and, with no roots to hold it in place, it can be blown away. This leads to the formation of deserts.
The ecosystem of a rain forest is complex. Above ground the vegetation may be lush and the system may support an abundance of wild life; but often the soil itself is very poor in nutrients. Many of the nutrients are effectively stored in the tissues of the living organisms both above ground and in the soil. Once the trees are removed the soil quickly becomes impoverished and infertile. It is then able to support only poor vegetation. As the climatic conditions will also have been have been changed it becomes very difficult to re-establish the forest.
The diversity of species
A tropical rain forest such as that in the Amazon contains an extraordinary variety of living organisms both in the trees themselves and in the flora and insect fauna which they support. A single tree can support a number of species unique to itself. Neighbouring plots may share only 10 per cent of their species and over a distance of 50 miles plots may share only 1 per cent of their species. The total number of species of insects on the Earth has been estimated as at least five million (some scientists put the figure very much higher); about half of these are thought to be in the Amazon region. Other tropical rain forests are similarly rich in biological diversity. Thus the loss of only some of the rain forests has brought about a significant loss of species.
Chemists are continually deriving new medicines from species which hitherto have been unexploited. Who knows what life threatening diseases might have their cure in species which are being destroyed day by day? No-one will ever know how important this will be for future generations but it is necessary to preserve as many as possible of those species which remain.
Plants cultivated by man represent a very small number of species usually grown in monocultures. As such they are prone to attack by disease and from time to time, in order to produce new resistant strains, they need to be crossed with related species. Many of the latter are found only in tropical forests; if the variety of these species is severely reduced then important food crops may eventually be destroyed by disease.
The nature of the paradox
Until the development of man as a cultural animal, wielding the wood technologies outlined above, trees dominated much of the land surface of the earth. It was the characteristics of wood, which trees evolved in becoming such a successful group of species: its strength, its flexibility, and its combustibility, which made it so useful to man. The development of that technological culture led, eventually, to an exponential growth in the world population and that, in turn, to the continuing destruction of the forests. People are competing with trees for physical space and consuming them at an unsustainable rate.
This is not something new. The destruction of the temperate forest in western Europe (and elsewhere) began in the stone ages. Neolithic people managed to destroy an extraordinary amount of forest cover. Much of the rest was ravaged before the beginning of the industrial revolution in the 18th century. Since that time the remaining areas of forest have been eroded by further pressure from the activities of man. However, looking at the situation with concern for the preservation of species, and the global ecosystem, the rain forests have been, and continue to be, of prime importance.
The tropical rain forests have been steadily eroded since prehistoric times and have declined to less than half of their original size. Nevertheless, although they now occupy less than 6 per cent of the land surface of the earth, it is estimated that they contain more than half of the species on the planet. After a survey made in 1990 it was estimated that they were then being destroyed at a rate of about 2 per cent per annum.
It can easily be seen that if this rate of destruction continues for, say, 30 years then their size will be reduced by another 50 per cent or so. What will this mean in terms of loss of species?
The attempt to estimate this requires some complex analysis for which scientists use a variety of mathematical models. However, taking a reasonable compromise in the middle of the range of estimates, it seems likely that by the year 2020 the number of species found in the rain forests will be reduced by around 20 per cent. If half of the number of species found world wide are in the rain forests then it follows that some 10 per cent of global numbers of species will be lost due to the destruction of rain forest alone.
If the loss of species from all other habitats on a global scale is considered other estimates suggest that it might be of a similar order to that in the rain forests. That means that there may well be a global loss of 20 per cent of species over the next 30 years.
Such estimates are necessarily subject to a range of possible errors, higher or lower. But it should be borne in mind that high rates of extinction have been in progress for several decades and many species have already been lost forever.
On top of this there is the question of global warming and the effect of that on the habitat. Global warming is currently taking place. No-one knows for sure if this the result of man's activities or whether it is due to natural climatic variations. Be that as it may, one thing is certain: the concentration of carbon dioxide (together with other greenhouse gases) in the atmosphere is rising steadily. The greenhouse effect is real, global temperatures will rise, and will put further pressure on the ability of many species to survive.
Another important problem is that no-one knows how much damage the ecosystem can stand before the life support systems, that maintain a habitable planet, are knocked out.
For all these reasons there is a real danger that in the not very distant future man will destroy a large proportion of the present population of species on the Earth, create an uninhabitable environment and then die out himself. If this happens it will not be the first time that a large proportion of the species on the Earth have been extinguished.
Mass extinctions
Mass extinctions have happened a number of times, probably as the result of events which have altered the climate. On five of these occasions at least 80 per cent of the extant species have disappeared. The last time there was mass extinction was at the time of the dinosaurs. This made possible the development of mammals and thus the birth of the human race.
On these past occasions the reason for the mass extinction was probably a shock to the ecosystem caused by external events in its physical environment. But now the sixth extinction is in progress and it is not the result of an external force but of internal changes in the ecosystem. These have been brought about by the process of evolution itself, namely the emergence of man. It is also happening with great speed, probably much quicker than at any time in the past.
Up to now, however, the pattern of evolution has been one of collapse and regeneration. Unfortunately for mankind regeneration takes millions of years. If we and many other current species do disappear life itself will probably go on but it will take forms which are unimaginable today.
Fortunately, the current cycle of extinction has yet to run its course. It is human culture which has brought about the present situation, perhaps human culture can bring it under control. As well creating traits like war and greed our cultures also incorporate moral values and ethics.
We have seen that there are pragmatic reasons of self-interest for preserving as many species as we can. We have also come to understand that the ecosystem is so complex and inter-related that we do not know how many bricks we can remove without precipitating the collapse of the complete structure. But as well as the need to preserve as much biological diversity as we can for our physical needs we also need it for our spiritual well being.
As a result of the array of facts which are coming to light even urban man is beginning to realize that he has a close relationship with the natural world and that he is not a separate entity with a different destiny. Because of this knowledge many people are in the process forming new ethical standards which accept that human beings have no right to destroy other species.
There are, then, three sets of reasons for the growth of concern for conservation, self interest, spiritual values and ethics. Unfortunately, it has yet to be shown that this concern is being translated sufficiently quickly into the necessary action. How many of us are prepared to change our life styles, and our patterns of consumption, to the degree necessary to preserve the natural world in the form it has today?
It may be that, as individuals, we cannot do these things until a general framework for action has been mapped out which will embrace politics, economics, ethics and philosophies of life. This must take time but time is short. Our best chance of doing something quickly lies in saving as much as possible of the remaining rain forests.
So we come back to the tree; its symbolic importance now takes on a new dimension. The tree can be seen as a metaphor for the whole planet. It can be seen either as a finite physical resource (like oil) or as a sustainable source of cash crops. As the latter it can provide an environment which supports many other forms of life and act as a gene bank. For many people it is also a source of spiritual sustenance. If we can find the political will and energy to save the rain forest then, touch-wood, maybe we will have found the formula which will help us to preserve an Earth which is fit for people to live in.

 REQUEST :- NOW NOTHING REMAINING TO SAY SO PLEASE SAVE OUR TREES, NATURE, AND CULTURE ALSO THAT IS WHY TO SAVE THE WORLD FROM THE GLOBAL WARMING  UNLESS NONE OF US CAN'T SERVIVE ANYWHERE IN THIS WORLD.

THANKS !! A LOT
SHASHIVENDRA KUMAR 
Asst. Teacher : JAIN INTER COLLEGE, KARHAL (MAINPURI)

SOME INSPIRABLE THOUGHTS..... try to apply these one in ur own soul perday...

1. Abstinence is forgiveness only when there is power to punish; it is meanigless when it pretends to proceed from a helpless creature :- MOHAN DAS KARAM CHANDRA GANDHI
2. There are no constraints on the human mind , no walls around the human spirit, no barriers to our progress except those we ourself erect. :- RONAL REGAN
3. There is no LOVE where there is no will. :- INDIRA GANDHI

4. Do not overrate what you have recieved, nor envy others. He who envies others does not obtain peace of mind :- BHAGVAD GEETA
5.The tongue like a sharp knife ....... kills without drawing blood :- BUDDHA
6.A mind all logic is like a knife all blade. It makes the hand bleed that uses it.:- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
7.A leader has the right to be beaten, but never has the right to be surprised. :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
8. Like slavery and apartheid, poverty is not natural. It is man-made and it can be overcome and eradicated by the actions of human beings. :- NELSON MANDELA

9. Faith is taking the first step eve when you don't see the whole staircase. :- MARTIN LUTHAR KING
10. Men are neal always willing to believe what they wish. :- JULIUS CAESAR
11. Pleasure in the job puts perfection in the work. :- ARISTOTLE
12. Action for one's own self binds, action for the sake of others delivers from bondage. :- MOHAN DAS KARAM CHANDRA GANDHI
13. Loyal and effiecient work in a great cause, even though it may not be immediately recognized, ultimately bears fruits. : - JAWAHAR LAL NEHRU

14. You can not shake hands with a clenched fist. :- INDIRA GANDHI
15. Even death is not to be feared by one who has lived wisely. :- BUDDHA
16. To sit back hoping that someday,some way, someone will make things right is to go on feeding the crocodile, hoping he will eat you last...... but eat you he will. :- RONALD REGAN
17. A man will fight harder for his interests than for his rights. :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
18.The great enemy of the truth is very often not the lie, deliberate, contrived and dishonest, but the myth, persistent, persuasive and unrealistic. :- JOHN F. KENNEDY

19.Men in general ar quick to believe that which they wish to be true. :- JULIUS CAESAR
20. Disease is the tax which the soul pays for the body, as the tenant pays house-rent for use of the house. :- RAMAKRISHNA PARAM HANSA
21. What is faith worth if it is not translated into action ? :- MOHAN DAS KARAM CHANDRA GANDHI
22. Before everything else, getting ready is the secret of success. :- HENERY FORD
23. You must lear to be still in the midst of activity and to be vibrantly alive in repose. :- INDIRA GANDHI
24. Every human being is the author of his own health or disease :- BHUDDHA
25. Beauty is truth's smile when she beholds her own face in a perfect mirror :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE

26. A genuine leader is not a searcher for consensus but a molder of consensus. :- MARTIN LUTHAR KING
27. The best way to keep one's word in not to give it. :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
28. An idealist is a person who helps other people to be prosperous. :- HENRY FORD
29. Injustice anywhere is threat to jusice everywhere. :- MARTIN LUTHAR KING
30. It is the mark of an eduacated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it. :- ARISOTLE
31. No one is so breave that he is not disturbed by something unexpected. :- JULIUS CAESAR
32. GOD in all men, but all men are not in GOD ; that is why we suffer. :- RAMAKRISHNA PARAM HANSA
33. A nation's strength ultimately consist in what it can do on its own, and not in what it can borrow from others. :- INDIRA GANDHI
34. Failure is simply the apportunity to begin again, this time more intelligently. :- HENRY FORD
35. Hatred does not cease by hatred, but only by LOVE; this is eternal rule. :- BUDDHA
36. Bigotry tries to keep truth safe in its hand with a grip that kills it. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
37. Love is an endless mystry, for it has nothing else to explain it. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
38. The word IMPOSSIBLE is not in my dictionary. :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
39. The greatest glory in living lies not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall. :- NELSON MANDELA
40. Love is the only force capable of transforming an enemy into friend. :- MARTIN LUTHAR KING
41. Be faithful in small things because it is in them that your strength lies. :- MOTHER TERESA
42. If you have ten thousands regulations you destroy all respect for the law :- WINSTON CHURCHILL
43. Longing is like the rosy dawn. After the dawn out comes the sun, longing is followed by the vision of GOD.:- RAMAKRISHNA PARAM HANSA
44. Ahimsa is the highest ideal. It is meant for the brave, never for cowardly. :- MOHAN DAS KARAM CHANDRA GANDHI

45. Comming togather is beginning;
keeping togather is progress;
working togather is success. :- HENRY FORD
46. Delusion arises from anger. The mind is bewildered by delusion. Reasoning is destroyed when the mind is bewildered. One falls down when reasoning is destroyed. :- BHAGVAD GEETA
47. Have compassion for all beings, rich and poor alike; each has their suffering. some suffer too much, other too little. :- BUDDHA
48. By plucking her petals, you do not gather the beauty of the flower. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
49. A lie can not live. :- MARTIN LUTHAR KING

50.There are two levers for moving men , " INTEREST and FEAR" :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
51.There is nothing like the returning to a place that remains unchanged to find the ways in which you yourself have altered. :- NELSON MANDELA
52. Our lives begin to end the day we become silent about things that matter. :- MARTIN LUTHAR KING
53. Beign unwanted, unloved, uncared for, forgotten by everybody, I think that is a much greater hunger, a much greater poverty than the person who has nothing to eat. :- MOTHER TERESA

54. Many are the names of GOD and infinite the forms through which he may be approached. :- RAMA KRISHNA PARAM HANSA
55. Ahimsa is the eradication of the desire to injure or to kill. :- MOHANDAS KARAM CHANDRA GANDHI
56.The art of a people is a true mirror of their minds. :- JAWAHAR LAL NEHRU
57. Power of GOD is with you at all times; thoough the activities of mind, senses, breathing and emotions; and is constantly doing all the work using you as a mere instrument. :- BHAGVAD GEETA
58. He is able who thinks he is able . :- BUDDHA
59. Don't find fault, find a remedy. :- HENRY FORD

60. A man can't ride your back unless it's bent. :- MARTIN LUTHAR KING
61. There is only one step from the sublime to the ridiculous :-  NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
62. A theory can be proved by experiment; but no path leads from experiment to birth of a theory.:-  ALBERT EINSTEIN
63.If you must break the law, do it to seize power, in all other cases observe it .:- JULIUS CAESAR
64. Do not wait for leaders; do it alone, person to person. :-  MOTHER TERESA
65. Many good sayings  are to be found in holy books, but merely reading them will not make one religious. :-  RAMA KRISHNA PARAM HANSA

66. Ahimsha is an attribute of the brave. Cowardice and Ahimsa don't go to gather any more that water and fire. :-  MOHAN DAS KARAM CHANDRA GANDHI
67. The forces in a capitalist society, if left unchecked, tend to make the rich richer and the poor and poorer. :-   Pt. J. L. NEHRU
68. Leadership and Learning are indispensable to each other. :-  JOHN F. KENNEDY
69. A business absolutely avoted to service will have only one worry about profits. They will be embarrassingly large. :-  HENRY FORD
70. Death is not extinguishing the light; it is only putting out the lamp because the dawn has come. :-  RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
71. A man who won't die for something is not fit to live. :-  MARTIN LUTHAR KING
72. VICTORY belongs to most perservering :-  NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
73. Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried any thing new. :- ALBERT EINSTEIN
74. Seeing is not always believing :- MARTIN LUTHAR KING
75. Even the rich are hungry for LOVE, for being cared for, for being wnated, for having someone to call their own. :- MOTHER TERESA
76. Do good for our friends to keep them, for your enemies to win them. :- BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
77. Nothing is particularly hard if you devide it into small jobs. :-  HENRY FORD
78. He who loves 50 people has 50 woes; he who loves no one has no woes. :- BUDDHA

79. A fool thinks himself to be wise, but a wise man knows himself to be a fool. :-  WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
80. Depth of friendship does not depend on length of aquaintance. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
81.We must laugh at man, to avoid crying for him. :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
82. Computers are incredibly fast, accurate, and stupid. Human being are incredibly slow, inaccurate, and  brilliant. Togather they are powerful beyond imagination. :- ALBERT EINSTEIN
83. Shallow understanding from people of good will is more frustrating than absolute misunderstanding from people of ill will. :- MARTIN LUTHAR KING
84. Everytime you smile at someone, it is an action of  LOVE, a gift to that person, be a beautiful thing. :- MOTHER TERESA
85. Pray to GOD that your attachment to such transitory things as wealth, name and creature comforts may become less and less every day. :- RAMA KRISHNA PARAM HANSA
86. The strength to kill is not essential for self -defence; one ought to have the stenght to die. :- MOHAN DAS KARAM CHANDRA GANDHI

87. The only alternative to coexistence  is co destruction. :- Pt. J.L. NEHRU
88. The wise sees knowledge and action as one; they see truly. :- BHAGVAD GEETA
89. Health is the greatest gift, contentment the greatest wealth, faithfulness the best relationship.:- BUDDHA
90. Let us never negotiate or fear. But let us never fear to negotiate.:- JOHN F. KENNEDY
91. If everyone is moving forward together, then success takes care of itself. :- HENRY FORD
92.A right delayed is a right denied. :- MARTIN LUTHAR KING
93.What is History but a fable ageed upon? :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
94. Education is what remains after one has forgotten everything one learned in school. :- ALBERT EINSTEIN

95. The passimist sees the difficulty in every opportuniy; an optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty. :- SIR WINSTON CHURCHILL
96. GOD does not require us to succeed; he only requires that you try. :- MOTHER TERESA
97.No power on the Earth can subjugate you when you are armed with the sword of ahimsa. It annobles both the victor and the vanquished. :- MOHAN DAS KARAM CHANDRA GANDHI
98.The person who runs away exposes himself to that very danger more than a person who sits quietly. :- Pt. J.L. NEHRU

99. The mind acts like an enemy for those who do not control it :- BHAGVAD GEETA

100. Holding on to anger is like grasping a hot coal with the intent of throwing it at someone else; you are the one who gets burned.:- BUDDHA
101. You must not fight too often with one enemy, or you will teach him all your tricks of war. :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
102. Do not say, " It is morning " and dismiss it with a name of yesterday. See it for the first time as a newborn child that has no name. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
103. If I only had and hour to chop down a tree, I would spend the first 45 minuts sharpening my axe. :- ABRAHAM LINCOLN

104. Few are those who see with their own eyes and feel with their own hearts :- ALBERT EINSTEIN
105. All things are not simple, and many can be expressed in single word : freedom, justice, honour, duty, mercy, hope :- SIR WINSTON CHURCHILL
106. Good works are links that from a chain of LOVE :- MOTHER TERESA
107. It is easy to talk on religion but difficult to practice it . :- RAMA KRISHNA PARAM HANSA

108. There is joy in work. There is no happiness except in the realization that we have accomplished something. :- HENRY FORD
109. The victory of Ahimsa has only one fear, that is, of GOD :- MOHAN DAS KARAM CHANDRA GANDHI
110. The person who talks most of his own virtue is often the least virtuous. :- Pt. J. L. NEHRU
111. A gift is pure when it is given from the heart to the right person at the right time and at the right place, and when we expect nothing in return.:- BHAGVAD GEETA

112. A life spent making mistakes is not only more honorable, but more useful than a life spent doing nothing . :- GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
113. A collection of uncertain prescriptions the results of which, taken collectively, are more fatal then useful to mankind. :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
114. I do not for success, I ask for faithfulness :- MOTHER TERESA
115. Don’t limit a child to your own learning, for he was born in another time. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
116. There are only two mistakes one can make along the road to truth; not going all the way, and not starting . :- BUDDHA
117. If you can’t explain it simply, you don’t understand it well enough. :- ALBERT EINSTEIN

118. Obstacles are those frightful things you see when you take your eyes off your goal. :- HENRY FORD
119. Everyone has his day and some days last longer than others. :- SIR WINSTON CHURCHILL
120. Activity is only road to knowledge :- GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
121. The hardest heart and the grossest ignorance must disappear before the rising sun of suffering without anger and without malice. :- M.K. GANDHI
122. The policy is being too cautious is the greatest risk of all. :- J. L. NEHRU

123. Perform your obligatory duty, because action is indeed better than inaction. :- BHAGVAD GEETA
124. Well don is better than the well said. :- BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
125. There has to be evil so that good can prove its purity above it . :- BUDDHA
126. The world is indeed a mixture of truth and make –believe. Discard the make-believe and take the truth. :- RAMA KRISHNA PARAM HANSA
127. Character is like a tree and reputation is like its shadow. The shadow is what we think of it the tree is real thing. :- ABRAHAM LINCOLN
128. Ability is little account without opportunity. :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

129. Imagination is more important than the knowledge. Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world. :- ALBERT EINSTEIN
130. Personal beauty is a greater recommendation than any letter of reference. :- ARISTOTLE
131. If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other. :- MOTHER TERESA
132. The power of unarmed nonviolence is any day far to that of armed force. :- M. K. GANDHI

133. He has the right to criticize who has the heart to help. :- ABRAHAM LINCOLN
134. Man is made by his belief. As he believes, so he is……. :- BHAGVAD GEETA
135. I never see what has been done; I only see what remains to be done. :- BUDDHA
136. Death is nothing, but to live defeated and inglorious is to die daily. :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
137. Some times it is not enough to do our best; we must do what is required. :- SIR WINSTON CHURCHILL

138. Through love one acquires renunciation and discrimination naturally.:- RAMA KRISHNA PARAM HANSA
139. There is nothing more dreadful than the habit of doubt. Doubt separates people. It is a poison that disintegrates friendship and breaks up pleasant relations. It is a thorn that irritates and hurts; it is a sword that kills. :- BUDDHA
140. In the middle of difficulty lies opportunity. :- ALBERT EINSTEIN

141. In my belief, you can not deal with the most serious things in the world unless you also understand the most amusing :- Sir WINSTON CHURCHILL
142. Those who are free of resentful thoughts surely find peace. :- BUDDHA
143. The only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it. :- OSCAR WILDE
144. Every difficulty slurred over will be a ghost to disturb your repose later on. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
145. There is perhaps nothing so bad and so dangerous in life as fear. :- Pt J.L. NEHRU

146. The mind is restless and difficult to restrain, but it is subdued by practice.:- BHAGVAD GEETA
147. If you can't feed a hundred of people. then feed just one :- MOTHER TERESA
148. If we want Love message to be heard, it has got to be sent out. To keep a lamp burning, we have to keep putting oil in it. :- MOTHER TERESA
149. In a controversy th instant we feel anger we have already ceased striving for the truth, and have begun striving for ourselves. :- BUDDHA
150.It is the habit of every aggressor nation to claim that it is acting on the defensive. :- Pt J. L. NEHRU
151. The burden of the self is lightened with I laugh at myself. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
152. Few really believe. The most only believe that they believe or even make believe. :- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
153. It is no use saying, "we are doing best". You have got to succeed in doing what is necessary. :- WINSTON CHURCHILL
154. Speak ill of no man, but speak all the good you know of the everybody. :- BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
155. Three things can not be long hidden , "THE SUN, THE MOON AND THE TRUTH" :- BUDDHA
156. A theory must be tempered with reality.:- Pt J. L. NEHRU
157. Everything comes to us that belongs to us if we creat the capacity of ricieve it . :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
158. If you judge people you have no time to love them :- MOTHER TERESA
159. HELL has three gates ," lust, anger and greed" :- BHAGVAD GEETA
160. A  common danger unites even the bitterest enemies. :- ARISTOTLE
161. Time is not measured by the passing of the years but by the what one does, what one feels, and what one achieves :- Pt  J. L. NEHRU
162. The butterfly counts not months but moments, and has time enough. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
163. It takes a long time to bring the past up to the present :- FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
164. Intellectual growth should commence at birth and cease only at death. :- ALBERT EINSTEIN
165. Kites rise highest against the wind... ... not with it. :-  SIR WINSTON CHURCHILL
166. A flower which is single need to envy the thorns that are numerous. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
167. The fabled musk deer searches the world over for the source of the scent which comes from itself. :- RAMA KRISHNA PARAM HANSA
168. Facts are many, but the truth is one. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
169. To be in good moral condition requires at least as much training as to be in good physical condition. :- Pt J. L. NEHRU
170. People will talk about your disgrace forever. To honored, dishonor is worse than death.  BHAGVAD GEETA
171. It is a man's own mind, not his enemy or foe, that lures him evil ways. :- BUDDHA
172. Solitary trees, if they grow at all, grow stong. :- SIR WINSTON CHURCHILL
173. Thousands of candles can be lighted from a single candle, and the life of candle will not be shortended. Happiness never decrease when shared. :-BUDDHA
174. Intellectual solves problems geniuses prevent them. :-  ALBERT EINSTEIN
175. Without the continual groth and progress, such word as improvement, achievement and success have no meaning. :- BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
176. He who knows how to flatter also know how to slander.:- NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
177. The highest education is that which does not merely give us information but makes our life in harmony with all existence. :- RAVINDRA NATH TAGORE
178. To be idle is a short road to deat and to be diligent is a way of life; foolish people are idle, wise people are diligent. :- BUDDHA
179. You have grow from the inside out. None can teach you, none can make you spritual, there is no other teacher but your own SOUL.:-     ...........................
180. A child is a father of a man :- WILLIAM WORDSWORTH
181. जियो और जीने दो — भगवान् महावीर
182 . आराम हराम है — पं० जवाहर लाल नेहरु
183 . म्रत्यु ही अंतिम सत्य है — भगवद गीता